INVESTIGATION… DISAPPEARING FOLIAGE: How Climate change, deforestation worsens Nigeria’s health crisis, endangering lives

Rural Nigerians face mounting challenges in accessing traditional medicine for malaria and typhoid treatment as deforestation worsens medicinal plant scarcity. ABDULWAHEED SOFIULLAHI reports

In front of Muftau Ajao’s house in Isalu-Iseyin, a community in Oyo State, South-West Nigeria, a group of locals sat on a wooden bench, appearing uncomely in their postures. Each of them had been assigned a number; they waited impatiently for their turn to share their health woes with the traditional medicine consultant, hoping for relief through his herbal concoctions.

Among the patients was Olawale Lawal, who had battled recurring typhoid and malaria for years, relying on herbal remedies as his go-to cure. One night in August 2022, while sleeping beside his grandfather, Olawale woke up with a high fever and a weak body. Alarmed, his family rushed him to a hospital, where he was diagnosed with typhoid fever. He was discharged after over a week of extensive medications. But the medical bills were overwhelming — over ₦212,000 — leaving his family financially drained.

A month later, his typhoid returned. Unable to afford another hospital bill, his family turned to Muftau Ajao, a well-known traditional healer in the community. “The herbalist promised to prepare a cure, but it would cost a lot. My parents couldn’t afford the full amount, so he gave me what they could pay for,” he recalled. Unfortunately, the ailment would return. When asked, the supposed healer explained that the herbs used needed to be stronger because some key ingredients were scarce, as the trees needed for them had been cut down by loggers.

“If those herbs were still available locally, I wouldn’t have gone through so much pain,” he claimed.

Muftau, 54, has treated people in Isalu-Iseyin for over a decade, specialising in typhoid and malaria. He said he inherited his traditional medicine practice from his forefathers. But the job has become much more complicated, as many of the trees and plants in the area are now scarce due to deforestation by illegal loggers.

Muftau Ajao, weary from a morning of foraging for medicinal herbs. Photo: Abdulwaheed Sofiullahi

“Back in the day, my father and I used to treat patients using leaves from trees like aganho (Senna fistula), ifuno (Adansonia digitata), and oruwoo (Morinda lucida). But now, those trees are hard to find because loggers have cut them down. Even if we search deep in the forests, we’re lucky to find just one or two,” he said.

To prepare the healing concoctions, he would boil leaves for hours, and the patient would sit covered in several layers of cloth, inhaling the steam. Afterwards, they would bathe with the mixture for several days. “Those remedies worked fast. Within five days, a patient could fully recover. But with the alternatives we use now, it takes a week or more,” he explained.

Muftau and his association of traditional healers have taken steps to protect the remaining trees. They’ve hired hunters to guard the forests, preventing loggers from cutting down medicinal plants. “Hiring hunters isn’t cheap, and it’s one reason our prices have increased. But it’s necessary to keep these trees safe,” he said.

In rural parts of this world, traditional medicine is not just a health option; it is a way of life. For people without modern healthcare, medicinal plants are the first line of defence against illnesses ranging from mild discomforts to life-threatening conditions. This knowledge becomes community-treasured heritage and one of the core cultural norms.

The landscape of traditional medicine in Nigeria is changing. Since late 2023, drug prices in the country have skyrocketed by up to 1000 per cent following the withdrawal of GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) from the market and rising inflation. Many Nigerians, unable to afford modern drugs, have turned to traditional medicine. According to the World Health Organization, herbal medicine is the primary healthcare source for up to 80 per cent of people in developing African countries, including Nigeria. However, deforestation is threatening the plants on which these remedies depend. The forests that once sustained healers and their patients are rapidly disappearing.

Scanty remains of Iseyin’s medicinal plant forest, a casualty of illegal logging and deforestation
Photo: Abdulwaheed Sofiullahi.

A month-long investigation reveals that rural residents in Oyo and Kwara States are avoiding costly hospital bills by seeking help from traditional doctors. Yet these healers face their challenges. Most plants used to treat malaria and typhoid have disappeared from the mall. The alternative plants to which they have turned are also running out. Interviewing plant specialists, environmental scientists and examining existing literature show that the destruction of forest habitats has exacerbated lifeworld illnesses and forced growing reliance on scarce resources. For traditional healers and their communities, the loss of these plants threatens health and a way of life.

In August 2023, GSK UK PLC, formerly known as GlaxoSmithKline, a British multinational pharmaceutical and biotechnology company, ended its operations in Nigeria after 51 years of providing household and medical products. Just four months later, Sanofi-Aventis Nigeria, a French pharmaceutical giant, also ceased operations after five decades in the country. Both companies cited challenges such as foreign exchange scarcity, increased competition from local firms, and a strategic review of their African drug and vaccine supply chains as reasons for their exit.

The impact of these departures has been severe, compounding an already dire economic situation for many Nigerians. According to the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), over 133 million Nigerians live in poverty as of 2022, lacking access to healthcare, education, and decent living conditions. Unemployment and inflation—reaching 28.9 per cent in December 2023—have further strained household finances, pushing more people toward cost-effective alternatives to modern healthcare.

The price of essential drugs has skyrocketed, driven by Nigeria’s reliance on imports due to limited local production. This dependency has left the country vulnerable, especially after the withdrawal of major pharmaceutical players. From July to September 2023, Nigeria imported medications worth N81.8 billion—a sharp 68 per cent increase from N48.74 billion during the same period in 2022.

The International Drug Centre predicts that drug prices will increase due to the continued fall of the naira and rising import costs for pharmaceutical products. Due to pressures, many Nigerians settle for traditional medicine as a more affordable alternative. Reports indicate that 30 per cent of patients who were on routine medications have switched to herbal remedies due to financial constraints, highlighting the growing reliance on plant-based treatments. A report had revealed that traditional medicine usage in Nigeria has surged to 81.6 per cent following the exit of these pharmaceutical giants. This trend will probably revert anytime soon, particularly as the global burden of diseases continues to rise and access to affordable modern medicine diminishes.

Lush green leaves surround a fallen tree, a victim of deforestation. Photo: Abdulwaheed Sofiullahi.

Nigeria’s Traditional Medicine Crisis

With over 8,000 plant species expected to have medicinal potentials, Nigeria’s rich biodiversity supports traditional healers and local communities, treating ailments like malaria, diabetes, and hypertension. Yet, these resources are under threat. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has classified 18 medicinal plant species in Nigeria as critically endangered and 146 as threatened. Climate change, deforestation, and urbanisation are accelerating the depletion of these plants, leaving traditional medicine practitioners struggling to find resources. Forest loss is a growing crisis in Nigeria. Revised statistics from the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) reveal that Nigeria led the world in deforestation between 2000 and 2005, losing 55.7 per cent of its primary forests. By 2021, the country had lost 97.8 thousand hectares of natural forest, generating 59.5 metric tons of CO2 emissions. The Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF) reports that 96 per cent of the country’s original forests have been lost.

According to Global Forest Watch, Nigeria lost 1.14 million hectares of tree cover between 2001 and 2021—a decline of 11 per cent since 2000. The government also disclosed in 2018 that 96 per cent of Nigeria’s original forests had disappeared. These statistics highlight the precarious state of medicinal plants and their knock-on effects on traditional medicine, biodiversity, and culture.

Traditional medicine practitioners and researchers say medicinal plants have become increasingly scarce over the past decade. Forest loss, overharvesting, and extreme weather fueled by climate change have endangered essential plant species. This issue directly affects the lives of traditional healers and patients who rely on these treatments. Rising hospital bills and the skyrocketing price of drugs have left many people with no alternative to conventional medicine in Oyo State. The healers have withdrawn from treating some illnesses due to the absence of plants, which has led to unnecessary deaths.

Gboyega Olorunfemi, an environmental expert and executive director at Enviromax Global Resources, has pointed to deforestation as a significant cause of medicinal plant shortages in Oyo and Kwara states. “This is quite significant. The continued loss of forest cover threatens the availability and sustainability of these valuable resources,” he said. “The main drivers of deforestation in these areas are logging, fuelwood collection, charcoal production, agricultural expansion, urbanisation, and infrastructure development.”

Olorunfemi stressed that the consequences are far-reaching. It depletes the availability of these plants, threatening the entire health ecosystem,” he said. “Not much research and development has gone into fully harnessing the potential of herbal medicine or quantifying the value of medicinal plants in these states.” He added that while traditional medicine practices are widespread, their contribution to ecological challenges needs to be explored.

Cut trees scattered across the forest floor, a stark reminder of the threat to Iseyin’s medicinal plants
Photo: Abdulwaheed Sofiullahi.

When old remedies fail

Agbaje Sheriffdeen, 25, from Iseyin in Oyo state, shared his struggle with typhoid fever. One day after he returned from work, he took a shower, and not long after, his body was weak. “The doctor at the hospital said it was typhoid fever. I got treatment, but after spending so much on hospital bills, it came back within three weeks.”

Agbaje Sheriffdeen looks overwrought. Typhoid molds unhealed wounds in his body system
Photo: Abdulwaheed Sofiullahi.

Determined to avoid more expenses, Agbaje turned to herbal medicine based on his friends’ advice, hoping it would work better. But when he met with a herbalist, he was told some of the trees needed for the remedy were no longer available because they had been cut down. The herbalist used substitutes, and though Agbaje got better, the fever returned after a few months. “When I returned, the man said the real ingredients were still unavailable. He told me he’d have to travel far to find them, and even then, he wasn’t sure he could get them.’’

Taiwo Shukurat, also from Iseyin commuity, described her recurring battles with typhoid and malaria. Earlier this year, she faced a severe bout. In July, she went to the hospital for a checkup, and tests showed she had both malaria and typhoid, so they put her on injections, drips, and lots of drugs. After spending over N150,000 and staying in the hospital for six days, she felt better. But just two weeks later, the symptoms returned. Frustrated, her mother-in-law suggested trying herbal medicine. Taiwo eventually agreed, and within three days of using the traditional remedy, she felt better — without the high costs.

Taiwo Shukurat shares her journey from costly hospital treatments to avoidable traditional remedies
Photo: Abdulwaheed Sofiullahi

With the rising cost of living, Taiwo prefers herbal remedies whenever she or her children fall ill. “I know many people who have stopped wasting money on treatments that don’t work,” she said. “My husband’s family introduced me to herbal medicine, and I’ve stuck with it ever since.”

Omotunde Lydia, a teacher living in the Omupo community in Kwara State, recounted her struggles when typhoid hit her without access to adequate healthcare. In the past, she and her family relied on medicinal herbs found in their backyard to cure typhoid and malaria, but she explained that those remedies are now scarce. When illness strikes, many residents cannot afford hospital care or herbal alternatives from local sellers.

“Ordinary osanwewe, a fruit plant we used to pick for free, boil, and drink whenever typhoid or malaria affects us, is now sold at high prices,” she shared. Costs can rival or exceed private facilities for those seeking treatment at general hospitals. Lydia mentioned spending ₦35,000 for typhoid and malaria treatment—a significant burden in a community with limited resources. She believes the government must intervene to make healthcare affordable for the average person.

She added that poor access to timely medical care is life-threatening for many in her community. “Some sicknesses that linger can cause others like dysentery turning into malaria,” she said.

Ayinde Lawal, a resident of the community where Omotunde lives in Kwara State, shared his experiences battling malaria and other health challenges associated with his sedentary lifestyle. When he first contracted malaria, he was admitted to the hospital and given multiple drips over three weeks. Despite the treatment, he saw little improvement.

“Malaria is not something to wish on even an enemy,” he said. Another patient in his ward, also suffering from malaria, required ten drips and spent even longer in recovery. Ultimately, it was herbal medicine that brought Lawal relief, a remedy he continues to trust despite its rising cost.

Muftau indicates a felled medicinal plant tree, a result of rampant illegal logging in Iseyin, Oyo State
Photo: Abdulwaheed Sofiullahi.

The preparation of herbal medicines, Lawal explained, relies on specific trees such as Oruwoo, dogo yaro, Aganho, and Oronbo, many of which have become scarce due to deforestation. Those who gather these ingredients often venture into government-owned forests, where they risk being arrested. This scarcity, coupled with the challenges of sourcing herbs, has significantly driven up prices. Herbal medicines that once cost ₦2,000 now sell for ₦5,000, making them less affordable for many. Despite the rising costs, Lawal finds them more practical than pharmaceutical drugs because they can be reused by adding water, making them last longer. For him, herbal remedies remain a vital alternative in the face of limited healthcare access.

Malaria and typhoid remain serious health problems in Nigeria. In 2021, the country recorded an estimated 68 million malaria cases and 194,000 deaths. Nigeria carries the world’s highest malaria burden, accounting for nearly 27 per cent of all global cases. Typhoid is also widespread, with over 290,000 cases reported yearly, especially in children under 15. Drug-resistant typhoid is becoming a growing concern in Nigeria and across the region.

Ushakuma Anemga, a gynaecologist and vice president of the Nigeria Medical Association, said the high cost of hospital visits and medications has driven more Nigerians to seek herbal remedies. “Many people simply can’t afford hospitals anymore,” he said.

Anemga warned that most herbal remedies lack scientific testing, making them risky. “People use these treatments without knowing what’s in them or the right doses,” he said. He also raised concerns about deforestation, which has made many medicinal plants harder to find, citing the case of artemisinin, a plant once used in China for malaria, which has now become the foundation for modern malaria treatment. “If we lose these plants, we lose their potential forever,” he said.

Medicinal plants disappearing from forests in Oyo and Kwara States

Ridwan Rasheedat, an herbal medicine seller in Oyo State’s Isoko-Iseyin community, has been in the profession for over thirty years. She describes her commitment to preserving her ancestors’ practices, even though it’s increasingly challenging. She advises the community to trust traditional medicine’s slow but effective healing, saying, “I get different people seeking help, from pregnant women to children. We’re blessed that they heal by God’s grace.”

Ridwan Rasheedat couches close to the herbs concoction pot at her shop in Iseyin community, Oyo State
Photo: Abdulwaheed Sofiullahi.

Saheed Yekeen, another herbalist from Iseyin, says that traditional medicine faces many challenges. “People say herbal medicine can harm organs, and it’s true in cases of overuse,” he noted, explaining how they’ve since learned to guide patients on safe dosages. Saheed added that malaria is common and can arise from mosquitoes, stress, or sun exposure. Typhoid, meanwhile, can cause deeper internal issues and often appears alongside malaria. “The mango bark used to work perfectly for both, but we must travel miles now to find it. The Aganho tree, also useful, is disappearing and now grows mostly in remote areas.”

Some herbs, such as unripe pawpaw, offer numerous healing properties. “It’s beneficial to take bitter foods; they’re good for the stomach,” he suggested. Saheed shared stories of his successful treatments, including when a doctor sought help for a persistent case that only improved with herbal remedies.

Saw millers and farmers contribute to the loss of vital herbal plants, Saheed noted, recalling a trip to gather the Iroko tree only to find it cut down. “Herbicides kill these important plants,” he lamented, adding that increased pharmaceutical demand for these plants also threatens supply. Overharvesting practices damage tree growth, making some herbs like sawelepepe harder to find. This leaf was once used to sharpen memory, but it’s nearly gone now.

Zainab Usman has relied on herbal medicine for decades in the Igberi-Owode community of Ifelodun Local Government Area, Kwara State. But the trees she once depended on, like Aganho and Iroko, have disappeared due to logging and farming. She has switched to alternatives like cashews, mangoes, and pawpaw trees to continue her work.

Zainab Usman simmering medicinal leaves for patients at Igeri-Owode community, Kwara State
Photo: Abdulwaheed Sofiullahi.

Her struggle to find Aganho led her to a swamp, where she and her team almost got stuck before being rescued. Zainab, who has been making herbal medicine for 40 years, believes the lost trees had superior healing properties. “Drugs only work halfway,” she said. “There is no part of the Aganho that isn’t useful.”

Another healer, Mahmudu Bello, said rising hospital costs—sometimes reaching hundreds of thousands of naira—drive more people to seek traditional medicine. Like Zainab, Bello learned the craft from his father and has faced similar challenges.

Professor Abdullahi Abdulrahman from the University of Ilorin confirmed that plants like Senna fistula (Aganho) and Morinda lucida (Oruwoo) are becoming scarce due to climate change, deforestation, and urbanisation. He warned about the dangers of replacing these plants with unreliable substitutes. “Two plants may look alike but have different chemical compositions,” he explained, noting that using the wrong plant can harm patients and erode trust in traditional medicine.

Medical plants cut off by illegal loggers at Igberi-Owode, Kwara State. Photo: Abdulwaheed Sofiullahi.

Professor Adeniyi Jayeola, a plant anatomy expert at the University of Ibadan, highlighted the major role traditional medicine plays in healthcare across developing countries, where about 80% of people still rely on it despite modern medicine advancements. Yet, he warned that the ongoing destruction of vegetation threatens this heavy reliance on natural remedies. ”

The professor also emphasised the need for proper evaluation and conservation of Nigeria’s medicinal plants. Unlike South Africa, Nigeria lacks a “red list” that records which plants are endangered, threatened, or need protection. “We need a formal evaluation process to know which plants are at risk,” he explained. Jayeola suggested that creating local extractive gardens, where communities grow and protect these plants, could provide sustainable Access to genuine medicinal plants and prevent harmful substitutions. He also advocated for conservation policies, including restrictions on deforestation, to preserve these valuable plants for future generations.

This story was supported by the Pulitzer Center.

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